Role Of E Coli And Salmonella Food Spoilage Biology Essay

Role Of E Coli And Salmonella Food Spoilage Biology Essay Food is sometimes contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, there are many sort of Pathogenic bacteria it is very dangers for human, animal, salmonella one of them, it is frequently found in fowl ,eggs ,raw approved by pets similar to turtles and birds, salmonella is bacterium which is one of the commonest causes of food spoilage worldwide , there are more than 2,000 dissimilar sorts of salmonella , but with the omission of the little which typhoid or parity ,fever the sickness they cause is related, also there is a common sort of bacteria call E.coli it is akin to beef and vegetables , E.coli is short for the medical dumpy Escherichia coli is short for thing about these bacteria and lots of other bacteria is that theyre not constantly harmful to you. (1,8) E.coli generally lives indoors your intestines where it helps your body split down and digest the food you eat , Ecoli be able to get from the insides into the blood , this is a rare sickness but it can cause a extremely serious infection food is the commonest sources of salmonella for humans . the food may have been contaminated bacteria the source, animal or bird was infected salmonella is common with chickens some studies in 1990 showing that about 50%of of frozen and fresh chicken hold the bacteria .infections in dairy herds may show the way to contamination of milk.( 4,7 ) Outbreaks of gastroenteritis suitable to contaminated food have been reported in extra parts of the world. The probable causes of these outbreaks were suitable to the consumption of food contaminated with pathogens bacteria. Studies from many countries have given away that the microbiological quality of food manufactured for make use of in foods and drinks might be a cause for concern. (1) Ecoli was discovered by German pediatrician and bacteriologist Theodor Escherichia in 1885, and is now classified as piece of the enterobacteriacea. (5) Salmonella was discovered by D.E salmon, the American veterinary pathologist who original described salmonella cholera sues in 1900. (5) In fact several microorganisms can stay alive in food, even though food is very important to the maintenance of life, it can also be conscientious for ill health. (1) Structure and function of E coli Bacteria The find structure of bacterial cells has been studied in some detail using electron microscopy of whole cells and cells broken up into separate components.(4) 1.1 the organism and its characteristics Escherichia coli is a kind of gram negative bacteria, this is usually found living indoors the lower intestine of human beings as well as animals , there are quite a few different strains of E coli bacteria , most of which are practically, harmless.( 10 ) Although they form a very minor component of the intestinal flora, the E coli bacteria aid in the digestion and break down of the ingested food. (6) E coli is the type of genus, it is a catalase-positive, oxidase -negative, fermentative, short, gram-negative, non-sporing rod, although it ferments the sugar lactose. The following figure illustrates  the size of  bacteria  under the  electron microscope. (2) Figure1.1-electron micrograph of E coli. 1.1.1-solation and identification of the isolates Colonies were isolated from the Trypticase Soy Agar plates (TSA) (Oxoid UK) and Triple Sugar Iron slants (TSI) (Oxoid UK) and incubated at 37oC for 24 hour. The isolated bacterial was identified by cultural morphology, Gram-stain and biochemically, the colonies that showed typical reaction in TSI and positive for cytochrom oxidase test and catalase test were confirmed by using Analytical Profile Index 20E (API 20E). The colonies which are gives Gram positive cocci identified by used catalase, coagulase and DNase test. (2) 1.1.2 What these bacteria do is that they produce loads of vitamin Amino acids and other growth factors which are immediately absorbed and used by the body. The Ecoli bacteria that colonize in the lower intestine by adhering to intestinal lumen. (9) However, some strains of E coli are also able of causing deadly health problems such as severe stomach characterized by cramps and belly pain, vomiting and severe diarrhea.(10) 1.2- Structure and function of salmonella 1.2.1 -the organism and its characteristics According to the(Adams, M and Moss, M ,1995) salmonella bacteria are the most common cause of food borne sickness in the united states there are more than 2500 serotypes of salmonella, only some of which cause illness in humans.(1 ) Salmonellas are members of the enterbacteracese they are gram negative, non-spore forming rods (typically o,5 m by 1.3m) which are faculatively anaerobic , catalase -positive, oxidise-negative. The following figure illustrates  the size of  bacteria  under the  electron microscope (4) Figure1.2.1 electron micrograph of salmonella 2-Similarities E.coli was discovered by German pediatrician and bacteriologist Theodor Escherichia in 1885, and is now classified as piece of the Enterobacteriace family.(1) the largest part E.coli strains are harmless, but some such as serotype 0157:H7, but some such as serotype 0157:H7, can cause serious food poisoning in humans.(2) Salmonella is closely related the Escherichia genus, and some classified as part of the enterobacteriace.( 1 ) Many Ecoli and salmonellas are responsible for a number of different clinical syndromes, grouped here as enteritis and systemic disease. bad stomach cramps and belly pain, vomiting, diarrhea, sometimes with blood in it two very bad strain of Ecoli and salmonella were found in fresh spinach in 2006. ( 2 ) on the other hand, some strains of e coli and salmonella are also capable of causing deadly health problems such as severe stomach upsets characterized by cramps and belly pain, vomiting and severe diarrhea.( 4 ) 3-Difference -E coli can be differenced from salmonella on the basis of a figure of sugar-fermentation, and other biochemical tests.(10) -E. coli is indole positive or methyl red positive, but salmonella was negative. -E.coli is atypical mesophile growing from 7-10c up to 50c with an optimum around 37c. (3) -Contamination of eggs especially with salmonellas is a long-recognized problem but in the most cases this was due to contamination of the eggshell. (4) -furthermore biochemical tests between E coli and salmonella is difference, so typically significant group of tests used for the ability to produce: i) Indole from tryptophan. ii) Sufficient acid to reduce PH. (8) -Any member of the genus salmonella presents some degree of hazard to human health, such as S.gallinarum, typhi and pullorum. (3) Discussion In many previous studies on the quality food microbiology criteria for the food and intake water to these recommended by world health organization. This is because lots of countries do not have specific notional microbiological for food spoilage. Although, many good bacteria are needed in your body to assist it work properly, a few of these bacteria assist you digest food (normal flour), and keep your skin clean. However, other types of bacteria can make you ill, also convinced bacteria invade your badly and attack, causing infection. Good hygiene and good handling practices are all prerequisites to the manufacture of good value food. WHOs microbiological guideline for food and drinking-water quality (6) Plate count (cfu/100ml) Coliform 0 E. coli 0 Salmonella 0 ACC Not specified REFEREENCES: 1-Adams, M and Moss, M (1995) food microbiology, the royal society of chemistry,Thomas graham house (pp.181-202). 2-Anonymous. 2002. Microbiological quality of ice for cooling drinks. Food safety authority of Ireland available from: http://www.fsai.ie/surveillance/food/ice_cooling_drinks.pdf 3-Doyle,M,beuchat,L,Montville,T,Montville,T(2001)Food Microbiology, the united states of american,washingtion(pp141-193) 4-Garbutt,J(1997) Essentials of food microbiology ,Great Britain, London pp(5-137) 5-Icmsf international commission on microbiological specification for foods (1996). Microorganisms in foods. 5. Microbiological specifications of food pathogens Characteristics of microbial pathogens. London, UK: blackie academic Professional (pp. 45-65). 6-International Commission on Micrological Specifications for foods (icmsf) (1986) microorganisms in foods (2), sampling for microbiological analysis: principles and specific applicationns.2th, university of Toronto, Canada. 7-Montville, T, Matthews, k (2005) Food Microbiology, A American Society for Microbiology, Washington pp (85-111) 8-Ray, B (2004) Fundamental Food Microbiology, Bibekray 3rd Ed, USAPP (257-269) 9- Who guidelines for drinking-water quality, vol. 1. (3rd ed.) 2004 available from:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq2004web.pdf 10-Wilson, I.g., Hogg, G.M. and Barr, j.g. microbiological quality of food in Hospital and community. j. hospital infect. 1997; 36:171-180.

Amazon.Com Supply Chain Management

Running head: Amazon. com Supply Chain Project Amazon. com Supply Chain Project Jarrel Nightingale [email  protected] edu Capella University BUS3004: Supply Chain Management Professor Dr. Robert Goldwasser December 10, 2012 Amazon. com Supply Chain Project Introduction In today’s society, Online Shopping and the industry of e-commerce has become very popular and mainstream. Many individuals have integrated online shopping into their normal routine and have replaced traditional shopping altogether.Online shopping has become so popular, there has been a shopping holiday called â€Å"Cyber Monday† which is the equivalent to â€Å"Black Friday. † Traditional brick and mortar retail stores are now forced to offer their products online in order to remain competitive. This is a new position for most businesses to be in, so businesses are forced to make the necessary adjustments to conform to the consumers’ demands. Complying with the demands of technology has b ecome a problem for some of the smaller businesses due to the lack of resources and infrastructure to produce these changes.Amongst the many online retailers that have emerged, Amazon. com has set itself apart as the industry leader in Online E-commerce. Since 1994, Amazon. com has built a successful empire that has become the default name for when one thinks about buying anything online. Through their documented success, Amazon. com has created the blueprint for those to follow in order to become a successful Online Retailer. In this assignment, I will discuss Amazon. com as it relates to their success and the structure of its company.Business Model Amazon. com sells books, music, and other items over the Internet and is one of the pioneers of consumer e-business. Amazon, based in Seattle, started by filling all orders using books purchased from a distributor in response to customer orders. This practice differs from that of a traditional bookstore, which usually purchases directly from publishers and stocks books in anticipation of customer orders. In 2008, Amazon had eight warehouses in the U. S. and another fifteen in the rest of the world.Amazon stocks many books, though it still gets other titles from distributors or publishers. It uses the U. S. Postal Service and other package carriers such as UPS and FedEx to send books to customers. Amazon has continued to expand the set of products that it sells online. Besides books and music, Amazon has added many product categories such as toys, apparel, electronics, jewelry, and shoes. (Chopra, et. Al, 2012) In addition to adding more products, the strategy of Amazon. com is technology based as it relates to consumer demand.Amazon's supply chain is so tightly integrated that when an online customer buys a couple of books and a CD, the order-management system communicates with inventory- and warehouse-management systems to find the optimal distribution center or centers for fulfilling the order. The customer know s in less than a minute how long it will take to ship the items and whether they will come in one package or separately (Bacheldor, 2004). Global Challenges Unlike most companies, Amazon. com has positioned itself to remain competitive in the national and global markets as well.Shipping is one of the most main expenses of e-commerce and shipping internationally can be a lengthy and expensive process. As mentioned earlier, Amazon. com has built new warehouses and changed the markets supplied by each warehouse as its customer base has grown. Currently there are 15 warehouses in total; 8 of those are located in the United States and the other 7 are located internationally. As a result, it has lowered shipping costs and improved responsiveness (Chopra, et. Al, 2012).There is a trade off because inventory and facility costs increase as the number of facilities in the supply chain increase; and transportation costs decrease as the number of facilities increase. The functionality of its te chnology is also designed to help with reducing costs so that transportation costs stay at a point where operating globally is still achievable. Amazon. com’s supply chain management applications communicate in real time when an order is placed and assigns shipping warehousing and cost based on location (Bacheldor, 2004).When the average company ships internationally the response time is typically in excess of 14 days and the cost to expedite takes any potential savings from purchasing online go away. Importance of Aggregate Planning Amazon. com is beginning to aggregate other e-commerce that are linked via strategic placement and investments. The vision is to make it so customers don’t have to go elsewhere to shop very often especially online (Scally, 2000). The reputation it has is so strong that any association with Amazon. com helps create an impression of validity and success for anyone that chooses to partner with them.Amazon has one of the most-sophisticated sup ply-chain systems in the world, and it was all built from scratch. Homemade applications handle nearly every aspect of its supply chain: warehouse management, transportation management, inbound and outbound shipping, demand forecasts, inventory planning, and more. In the last four years, Amazon has worked to minimize the need for human intervention in its supply-chain processes, such as manually inputting sales forecasts into an inventory-management system (Bacheldor, 2004).Today, Amazon's supply-chain apps communicate in real time, a rarity when most companies have to integrate a variety of software tools and manual processes, such as phone and fax orders. Ultimately, the goal is to try to â€Å"touch† every type of transaction on the web dealing with e-commerce and to integrate with business partners to enhance the online shopping experience (Scally, 2000). Many traditional brick and mortar stores are affiliating themselves with Amazon in order to gain online presence and s ell its merchandise online. This is a mutual benefit as it allows Amazon to continue to diversify its products.Role of Demand Forecasting and Pricing Promotions To achieve strategic fit, a firm must tailor its supply chain to best meet the needs of different customer segments. To retain strategic fit, supply chain strategy must be adjusted over the life cycle of a product and as the competitive landscape changes. Future risks, uncertainties, and environmental concerns must be accounted for when firms design their supply chain strategy. Customers ordering a book at Amazon. com are willing to wait longer than those who drive to a nearby Borders store to get the same book.In contrast, customers can find a much larger variety of books at Amazon compared to the Borders store. Thus, Amazon customers trade off fast response times for high levels of variety (Chopra, et. Al, 2012). Amazon offers its customers a large menu of prices for products that are purchased from the company. For exampl e, a person purchasing two books worth $30 could use standard shipping (ships in 3–5 business days) at a cost of $4. 98, two-day shipping (ships in 2 business days) at a cost of $13. 97, one-day shipping (ships in 1 business day) at a cost of $22. 97 or use free shipping (ships in 7–14 business days).The pricing menu allows Amazon to attract customers with varying levels of desired responsiveness (Chopra, et. Al, 2012). Whereas customers paying for one-day shipping impose a high degree of uncertainty on Amazon, customers opting for free shipping can be used to level out the workload at the warehouse over time. Amazon can thus use its pricing to provide responsiveness to those who value it while using customers who want a low price to help it improve its efficiency. Amazon also uses pricing effectively to shift some of the Christmas peak to November, by offering free or discounted shipping.The discount moves some of the December demand forward, allowing it to reduce its December peak and improve its efficiency without giving up on responsiveness for those customers who do not want to order earlier. Conclusion Since 1994, Amazon. com has built a successful empire that has become the default name for when one thinks about buying anything online. Through their documented success, Amazon. com has created the blueprint for those to follow in order to become a successful Online Retailer. By offering a vast variety of products, Amazon has changed the way many consumers shop for our merchandise.In addition to more options, the prices are often times cheaper even though the merchandise ordered is always shipped from a different location. What Amazon started in 1994 has now been revolutionized as Amazon continues to find ways to better the merchandise, the technology involved, and most important the customer experience. References Anonymous. 1998. IceGroup Releases Amazon. com Analysis . PR Newswire, Retrieved from www. lexisnexis. com/hottopics/lnacademic Bacheldor, B. (2004). FROM SCRATCH: Amazon keeps supply chain close to home. InformationWeek, (979), 40-40.Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/229180916? accountid=27965 Chopra, Sunil, Meindl, Peter. (05/2012). Supply Chain Management, 4/e for Capella University, 4th Edition. Pearson Learning Solutions. Scally, R. (2000). Amazon. com: The force that's altering e-tail, one category at a time. DSN Retailing Today, 39(9), 42-44+. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/228466615? accountid=27965 Willis, C. (1998, Apr 06). Does amazon. com really matter? Forbes, , 55-58. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/195047045? accountid=27965

The Developmental Nature of Cognition Essay - 2662 Words

According to constructivist and cognitive theorists, cognition is defined as the processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through perception, reasoning, judgment, thought, and experiences (Mora, 2007). The developmental stages of cognition have many implications in the educational setting. It is important for educators to understand the stages of development to facilitate the learning process of students from preschool to graduate studies. This paper will explore the developmental nature of cognition from the viewpoint of stage and social learning theories. Although the major focus is on cognitive development, it will also explore the implications in educational settings that deal with mild intellectually†¦show more content†¦The premise of this line of investigation focuses on the social behavior of observing and how it affects cognition. Many regard social learning principles as a bridge between behavior and cognitive approaches to understanding the process of learning. Other notable social learning authors include domain, community and practice studies by Jean Lave and Etienne Wender, as well as discovery learning by Jerome Bruner. The curiosity of the processes of cognition and its application to learning in schools has developed into the practice of educational psychology. This branch explores the effectiveness of learning and focuses on marginal groups such as gifted and special education subgroups in institutional settings. One major goal of cognitive theory is to determine the processes involved in learning. With this in mind, the following examines cognition from birth through adulthood. The prenatal period is defined as the time from conception to birth and biologically is marked as a time of tremendous growth (Santrock, 1999). 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World War II Fighting in North Africa and Italy

In June 1940, as World War II fighting was winding down in France, the pace of operations quickened in the Mediterranean. The area was vital for Britain, which needed to maintain access to the Suez Canal in order to remain in close contact with the rest of its empire. Following Italys declaration of war on Britain and France, Italian troops quickly seized British Somaliland in the Horn of Africa and laid siege to the island of Malta. They also began a series of probing attacks from Libya into British-held Egypt. That fall, British forces went on the offensive against the Italians. On Nov. 12, 1940, aircraft flying from HMS Illustrious struck the Italian naval base at Taranto, sinking a battleship and damaging two others. During the attack, the British only lost two aircraft. In North Africa, General Archibald Wavell launched a major attack in December, Operation Compass, which drove the Italians out of Egypt and captured over 100,000 prisoners. The following month, Wavell dispatched troops south and cleared the Italians from the Horn of Africa. Germany Intervenes Concerned by Italian leader Benito Mussolinis lack of progress in Africa and the Balkans, Adolf Hitler authorized German troops to enter the region to assist their ally in February 1941. Despite a naval victory over the Italians at the Battle of Cape Matapan (March 27–29, 1941), the British position in the region was weakening. With British troops sent north from Africa to aid Greece, Wavell was unable to stop a new German offensive in North Africa and was driven back out of Libya by General Erwin Rommel. By the end of May, both Greece and Crete had also fallen to German forces. British Pushes in North Africa On June 15, Wavell sought to regain the momentum in North Africa and launched Operation Battleaxe. Designed to push the German Afrika Korps out of Eastern Cyrenaica and relieve the besieged British troops at Tobruk, the operation was a total failure as Wavells attacks were broken on the German defenses. Angered by Wavells lack of success, Prime Minister Winston Churchill removed him and assigned General Claude Auchinleck to command the region. In late November, Auchinleck commenced Operation Crusader which was able to break Rommels lines and pushed the Germans back to El Agheila, allowing Tobruk to be relieved. The Battle of the Atlantic: Early Years As in World War I, Germany initiated a maritime war against Britain using U-boats (submarines) shortly after hostilities began in 1939. Following the sinking of the liner Athenia on Sep. 3, 1939, the Royal Navy implemented a convoy system for merchant shipping. The situation worsened in mid-1940, with the surrender of France. Operating from the French coast, U-boats were able to cruise further into the Atlantic, while the Royal Navy was stretched thin due to defending its home waters while also fighting in the Mediterranean. Operating in groups known as wolf packs,, U-boats began to inflict heavy casualties on British convoys. To ease the strain on the Royal Navy, Winston Churchill concluded the Destroyers for Bases Agreement with U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt in September 1940. In exchange for fifty old destroyers, Churchill provided the U.S. with ninety-nine year leases on military bases in British territories. This arrangement was further supplemented by the Lend-Lease Program the following March. Under Lend-Lease, the U.S. provided vast amounts of military equipment and supplies to the Allies. In May 1941, British fortunes brightened with the capture of a German Enigma encoding machine. This permitted the British to break the German naval codes which allowed them to steer convoys around the wolf packs. Later that month, the Royal Navy scored a victory when it sank the German battleship Bismarck after a prolonged chase. The United States Joins the Fight The United States entered World War II on Dec. 7, 1941, when the Japanese attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Nazi Germany followed suit and declared war on the United States. In late December, U.S. and British leaders met in Washington, D.C., at the Arcadia Conference, to discuss the overall strategy for defeating the Axis. It was agreed that the Allies initial focus would be the defeat of Germany as the Nazis presented the greatest threat to Britain and the Soviet Union. While Allied forces were engaged in Europe, a holding action would be conducted against the Japanese. The Battle of the Atlantic: Later Years With the U.S. entry into the war, the German U-boats were afforded a wealth of new targets. During the first half of 1942, as the Americans slowly adopted anti-submarine precautions and convoys, the German skippers enjoyed a happy time which saw them sink 609 merchant ships at a cost of only 22 U-boats. Over the next year and half, both sides developed new technologies in attempts to gain an edge over their adversary. The tide began to turn in the Allies favor in the spring of 1943, with the high point coming that May. Known as Black May by the Germans, the month saw the Allies sink 25 percent of the U-boat fleet, while suffering much reduced merchant shipping losses. Using improved anti-submarine tactics and weapons, along with long-range aircraft and mass-produced Liberty cargo ships, the Allies were able win the Battle of the Atlantic and ensure that men and supplies continued to reach Britain. Second Battle of El Alamein With the Japanese declaration of war on Britain in December 1941, Auchinleck was forced to transfer some of his forces east for the defense of Burma and India. Taking advantage of Auchinlecks weakness, Rommel launched  a massive offensive  that overran the British position in the Western Desert and pressed deep into Egypt until it was halted at El Alamein. Upset by Auchinlecks defeat, Churchill sacked him in favor of  General Sir Harold Alexander. Taking command, Alexander gave control of his ground forces to  Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery. To regain the lost territory, Montgomery opened the Second Battle of El Alamein on Oct. 23, 1942. Assaulting the German lines, Montgomerys 8th Army was finally able to break through after twelve days of fighting. The battle cost Rommel almost all of his armor and forced him to retreat back towards Tunisia. The Americans Arrive On Nov. 8, 1942, five days after Montgomerys victory in Egypt, U.S. forces stormed ashore in Morocco and Algeria as part of  Operation Torch. While U.S. commanders had favored a direct assault on mainland Europe, the British suggested an attack on North Africa as a way to reduce pressure on the Soviets. Moving through minimal resistance by Vichy French forces, U.S. troops consolidated their position and began heading east to attack Rommels rear. Fighting on two fronts, Rommel assumed a defensive position in Tunisia. American forces first encountered the Germans at the  Battle of Kasserine Pass  (Feb. 19–25, 1943) where Major General Lloyd Fredendalls II Corps was routed. After the defeat, U.S. forces initiated massive changes which including unit reorganization and changes in command. The most notable of these was  Lieutenant General George S. Patton  replacing Fredendall. Victory in North Africa Despite the victory at Kasserine, the German situation continued to worsen. On Mar. 9, 1943, Rommel departed Africa, citing health reasons, and turned over command to General Hans-Jà ¼rgen von Arnim. Later that month, Montgomery broke through the Mareth Line in southern Tunisia, further tightening the noose. Under the coordination of U.S.  General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the combined British and American forces pressed the remaining German and Italian troops, while  Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham  ensured that they could not escape by sea. Following the fall of Tunis, the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered on May 13, 1943, and 275,000 German and Italian soldiers were  taken  prisoner. Operation Husky: The Invasion of Sicily As the fighting in North Africa was concluding, the Allied leadership determined that it would not be possible to stage a cross-Channel invasion during 1943. In lieu of an attack on France, it was decided to  invade Sicily  with the goals of eliminating the island as an Axis base and encouraging the fall of Mussolinis government. The principle forces for the assault were the U.S. 7th Army under Lt. Gen. George S. Patton and the British Eighth Army under Gen. Bernard Montgomery, with Eisenhower and Alexander in overall command. On the night of July 9/10, Allied airborne units began landing, while the main ground forces came ashore three hours later on the southeast and southwest coasts of the island. The Allied advance initially suffered from a lack of coordination between U.S. and British forces as Montgomery pushed northeast towards the strategic port of Messina and Patton pushed north and west. The campaign saw tensions rise between Patton and Montgomery as the independent-minded American felt the British were stealing the show. Ignoring Alexanders orders, Patton drove north and captured Palermo, before turning east and beating Montgomery to Messina by a few hours. The campaign had the desired effect as the capture of Palermo had helped spur Mussolinis overthrow in Rome. Into Italy With Sicily secured, Allied forces prepared to attack what Churchill referred to as the underbelly of Europe. On Sep. 3, 1943, Montgomerys 8th Army came ashore in Calabria. As a result of these landings, the new Italian government led by Pietro Badoglio surrendered to the Allies on Sep. 8. Though the Italians had been defeated, the German forces in Italy dug in to defend the country. The day after Italys capitulation, the main  Allied landings occurred at Salerno. Fighting their way ashore against heavy opposition, American and British forces quickly took the city Between Sep. 12–14, the Germans launched a series of counterattacks with the goal of destroying the beachhead before it could link up with the 8th Army. These were repulsed and the German commander General Heinrich von Vietinghoff withdrew his forces to a defensive line to the north. Pressing North Linking up with 8th Army, the forces at Salerno turned north and captured Naples and Foggia. Moving up the peninsula, the Allied advance began to slow due to harsh, mountainous terrain that was ideally suited for defense. In October, the German commander in Italy, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring convinced Hitler that every inch of Italy should be defended to keep the Allies away from Germany. To conduct this defensive campaign, Kesselring constructed numerous lines of fortifications across Italy. The most formidable of these was the Winter (Gustav) Line which stopped the U.S. 5th Armys advance at the end of 1943. In an attempt to turn the Germans out of the Winter Line, Allied forces  landed further north at Anzio  in January 1944. Unfortunately for the Allies, the forces that came ashore were quickly contained by the Germans and were unable to  break out of the beachhead. Breakout and the Fall of Rome Through the spring of 1944,  four major offensives  were launched along the Winter Line near the town of Cassino. The final assault commenced on May 11 and finally broke through the German defenses as well as the Adolf Hitler/Dora Line to their rear. Advancing north, U.S. General Mark Clarks 5th  Army  and Montgomerys 8th Army pressed the retreating Germans, while the forces at Anzio were finally able to break out of their beachhead. On June 4, 1944, U.S. forces entered Rome as the Germans fell back to the Trasimene Line north of the city. The capture of Rome was quickly overshadowed by the Allied landings in Normandy two days later. The Final Campaigns With the opening of a new front in France, Italy became a secondary theater of the war. In August, many of the most experienced Allied troops in Italy were withdrawn to take part in the  Operation Dragoon  landings in southern France. After the fall of Rome, Allied forces continued north and were able to breach the Trasimene Line and capture Florence. This last push brought them up against Kesselrings last major defensive position, the Gothic Line. Built just south of Bologna, the Gothic Line ran along the tops of the Apennine Mountains and presented a formidable obstacle. The Allies attacked the line for much of the fall, and while they were able to penetrate it in places, no decisive breakthrough could be achieved. Both sides saw changes in leadership as they prepared for the spring campaigns. For the Allies, Clark was promoted to command of all Allied troops in Italy, while on the German side, Kesselring was replaced with von Vietinghoff. Beginning on April 6, Clarks forces assaulted the German defenses, breaking through in several places. Sweeping onto the Lombardy Plain, Allied forces advanced steadily against weakening German resistance. The situation hopeless, von Vietinghoff dispatched emissaries to Clarks headquarters to discuss terms of surrender. On April 29, the two commanders signed the instrument of surrender which took effect on May 2, 1945, ending the fighting in Italy.